In the stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald, everyone in the end experiences defeat. To what extent is this statement true? Essay

In â€Å"Flappers and Philosophers†, the ideas of defeat and humiliation are presented throughout the collection. The author produces a profound exploration into the lives of the female protagonists who depend on popularity and sexuality as sources of power. It also deals with the ramifications of being an outsider during that period of time and how defeat is nearly always the result from the need for acceptance into those societies. Although many of the characters suffer the negative consequences of their actions in their respective societies, some do achieve victory, but at a price. To understand the characters in the story we must first deal with the social, cultural and historical contexts. These short stories were written between the world wars and among the interwar boom, before the Great Depression. This era was very important of women, young people, the arts and creative industries. The blossoming of youth culture also contributed to the rise of â€Å"flapperdom†. Before this period, we had the Victorian era, where women were subjected to immense conservatism, and their emotions and opinions were unjustly oppressed. Women were expected to cover up and know their place in the social hierarchy. â€Å"Flapperdom† introduced the thought of independence and non-conformity. The epitome of this idea would be the character of Ardita in â€Å"The Offshore Pirate†. She is an allegory that represents a whole shift in the mode of behaviour, a kind of liberation into something that is more dangerous, alive and sexy. In many of the short stories the female protagonist does suffer from defeat as shown in the short story â€Å"The Ice Palace†. Sally Carrol is a Southern Belle, who wishes to become a flapper. She does not succeed in this matter, as she is forced to return to her home after a trial run in the North. The author has used two distinct sematic fields to suggest the binary opposition between the North and the South. The South is warm and bright, with â€Å"the sunlight dripp[ing] over the house light golden paint.† The central motif in the paragraph of the short story is liquid light and that gives the reader a feeling of warmth and laziness. The two worlds are juxtaposed when the author describes the setting of the North. The rigid nature of the lexical choice in part III of the story shows how Sally Carrol is a microcosm of the South transplanted into the hostile nature of the North. â€Å"It was very cold† and Sally Carrol â€Å"slid uncomfortably† into her clothes and she â€Å"stumbled† up to the diner. The semantic field of ice is used here as seen in the words â€Å"sliding† and â€Å"slippery†. This gives the reader the impression that Sally Carrol is very awkward in this setting and not in control as a flapper should be. Sally Carrol judges things by how long it has been around, not in terms of monetary value. The difference in value systems between the North and the South makes it impossible for Sally Carrol to integrate into the Northern society, a society fuelled by money. Therefore Sally Carrol has the hallucination of Margery Lee, who is a personification of the old South. Sally Carrol experiences defeat and cannot follow her dreams of living as a flapper because of the restrictions in her abilities to adapt to a new environment. However, one may look at it the other way and say she has actually succeeded in living the life she is most suitable for – the Southern life. This is evident in the lexical shift in part VI, where the surroundings are smothered in the â€Å"wealth of golden sunlight†. This parallels part I of the story provides a certain unity that enables the reader to feel like the Southern life is where Sally Carrol belongs. In â€Å"Bernice Bobs Her Hair†, Bernice deals with the problem of being an outsider to an elite society full of successful people. She is seduced into â€Å"flapperdom† by Warren, who initiated the process by flirting with her. The remark that she had an â€Å"awfully kissable mouth† made her excited enough to change into someone who is obsessed with superficiality. She becomes an artificial flapper, a shadow of Marjorie. The struggle for acceptance is evident through the fact that even though the ideas underpinning their belief system is from two different paradigms, Bernice still learns to grasp onto that vibrant and fleeting youth. Stripped from her original values, and seduced into the world of â€Å"flapperdom†, Bernice only superficially assimilates into the elite society but fails at the end when her bluff is called. However, through this defeat, one may argue that she has actually achieved more. Liberating herself from the shackles of the Victorian era, she started to exhibit the traits of a flapper when she cuts off Marjorie’s hair. Not only did this provide an intense climax to the short story, it also explains that although the character experiences defeat, the resultant victory can compensate for that. Although on the surface â€Å"The Cut-glass Bowl† is a story about an enormous glass punch bowl ruining the life of Eveyln Piper, when you look at it closely, the story traces the deterioration of her â€Å"flapperdom† and her marriage to a prosperous hardware dealer whose business declines over several years. The author foreshadows this deterioration at the beginning of the text when he says that â€Å"the struggle for existence began†. â€Å"The bonbon dish lost its little handle†; a â€Å"cat knocked the little bowl off the sideboard†; â€Å"the wine glasses succumbed to leg fractures†. Throughout the story, an idea of superficiality comes into play. The cut-glass bowl is a conceptual metaphor that not only embodies the character Evelyn, but also outlines the features of her marriage. It is â€Å"as hard as† she is and â€Å"as beautiful and as empty and as easy to see through.† Her marriage is empty as she has to see someone else other than her husband to relight her fire. Even her words contain nothing, as they are in italics suggesting a false and unnecessary emphasis. Evelyn lives in a society obsessed with external beauty and superficiality. The author finds it necessary to describe the â€Å"beautiful† Mrs Harold Piper with her â€Å"young, dark eyes†. Evelyn experiences defeat as she is married and no longer able to capture that fleeting youth and vibrant energy that formed the basis of her existence. She fails to retain her physical beauty in a society where it is valued the most. Again, towards the end, she gains a sense of victory when she destroys the cut-glass bowl that has destroyed her life. Even here, the author stresses how vulnerable and helpless Eveyln is as she struggles to smash the bowl. The lexical choice here is in the sematic field of difficulty and uneasiness. She had to â€Å"tighten her arms† and her muscles were â€Å"tauted†. Her energy was â€Å"desperate† and â€Å"frantic†, and her effort was â€Å"mighty† and â€Å"strained†. The author cleverly uses the juxtaposition of the size of the bowl with the size of Evelyn to accentuate the difficulty she experiences. Furthermore, the repetition of the phrase: â€Å"she must be quick – she must be strong† shows that although she does suffer defeat, victory and liberation can be achieved through great difficulty. In his short stories, F Scott Fitzgerald has made sure everyone at the end suffers some kind of defeat. This is achieved by Ardita in â€Å"The Offshore Pirate† being humiliated, Sally Carrol in â€Å"The Ice Palace† returning to her hometown, Bernice in â€Å"Bernice Bobs Her Hair† bobbing her hair, and Evelyn in â€Å"The Cut-glass Bowl† losing the essence that used to define her as a flapper. However, the author has also made us realise that in life, even though we may experience defeat and humiliation, we must look within ourselves and find that personal victory that will surpass the negative feelings of loss.

Informative Speech Outline: bullying exactly

I, How many of you have been hearing about bullying? As you may hear on TVs or news or people are talking about the rates of bullying is going up from years to years.II, According to a research survey, bullying occurs once every 7 minutes in schools. Due to the National Youth Violence Prevention Center, almost 30% of adolescences in the USA (or over 5. 7 millions) are estimated to take part in bullying either bullying, being bullied or both. Also according to a 2007 nationally representative poll by The Workplace Bullying Institute, 37% of US workforce or 54 million employees have been bullied some time during their work time.III, Bullying can affect anyone, so you can gain something from this speech by being informed about bullyingIV, Today, I am going to explain the definition of bullying, what its effects are and how to prevent it. Body I, First of all, let’s explain in details what bullying means.A. What is bullying exactly and why?1. Firstly, bullying is intentional behav iors that are designed to hurt, harm, or damage the victims. It can take many forms like verbal, physical, social/relational/emotional, or cyber bullying – or any combination of these).Next, there must be an imbalance power involved (the bullies have power over the victims). Finally, it is often repeated periodically.2. So what do bullies want? The book â€Å"Talking about Bullying† says:a. Bullies want to feel important and big, create attention: dominate others or use others to get want they wantb. They want to feel like they are better than othersc. They want to hurt others and make them feel smallB. In order to know when bullying happens, we also need to know about ways and means of bullying1. Physicala.Typically, physical bullying involves: hair pulling, pinching, pushing, shoving, slapping, kicking, tripping, poking, stabbing, spitting, hitting, punching, head butting, choking, scratching, hiding or destroying someone’s property, etc.b. Example: pushing pe ers against the lockers to ask for money, or touching someone in a sexual way when it’s not wanted†¦2. Verbala. Ways bullies can use language or words to hurt others: name calling, taunting, swearing, spreading rumors, gossip, note writing, laughing at someone’s mistake, insulting nicknames, hate speech, mocking or imitating, threats, abusive remarks, etc.b. Example: Calling someone crybaby, trout mouth; saying nasty things about someone else†¦3. Emotional/ Relational:a. Nonverbal: pointing, staring, laughing, making faces, rolling their eyes, making loser signs, or sticking up middle fingers, etc.b. Psychological: excluding, isolating, ignoring or turning their back on someone such as leaving someone out of activities or game, purposely not talking to someone†¦ c. Another type of relational bullying is cyber-bullying is now very popular.Bullies can send emails spreading rumors, making vulnerable digital images of someone else, texting someone mean messa ges, online exclusion, videotape assault, etc.II, Bullying has extremely great effects on children so I will go into depth about children’s effects of bullyingA. Educational and mental fear always in the bullied’s minds.1. Keeping secrets and fears become phobia:a. Ashamed of being bulliedb. Afraid of retaliation if telling an adultc. Don’t think anyone can helpd. Don’t think anyone WILL helpe.Lie1. â€Å"The parent’s book about bullying† states the real effects are:a. skip schools ( In 2001, The journal of the American Medical association reported that > 160,000 students skip school every day because they are fearful of being bullied)b. don’t join in extracurricular activitiesc. carrying weaponsd. Avoiding peers and social group at schoole. reluctance to talk about what is happening at schoolf. sad and depressedg. Unexplainable drop in academic performance2. Being bullied can lead to commit suicide.1.Example: Jan 1999, Manchester, England, 8-year-old Marie Bentham hanged herself in her bedroom with her jump rope because she felt she could no longer face the bullies at school. She is considered Britain’s youngest bullycide.2. Example: June 29, 2005, a 15-year-old in Cape Coral, Florida, hanged himself after being repeatedly taunted online for 2 years by his classmates.III, Bullying is a life-death issue so we need to prevent it at home, school, or work.A. For parents1. intervene immediately with discipline2. create opportunities to â€Å"do good†3 . report the incident to school or child’s care4. teach friendship’s skill5. closely monitor children’s TV viewing, video game playing, computer activities, etc.6. engage in more constructive, entertaining, and energizing activitiesB. For teachers and school1. gathering info about bullying at school directly from students2. establishing clear school-wide and classroom rules about bullying3. training all adults on school to respond sensitively and consistently to bullying4. providing adequate adult supervision5. mproving parental awareness of and involvement in working on the problem C.For the bullied Tell the bullies to stop Speak to the school personnel, parents or adults outside of school Have your parents contact the school or school district Seek help for mental health issues if needed Anyone can become a victim of bullying but we can decrease our chances of being bullied of ours and others by being more informed on the concept, the effects of bullying and how to prevent it. Now, since you have more information about bullying, you may protect yourself and the ones you love!

African-American Vernacular English vs Standard English in Mule Bone

African-American Vernacular English vs Standard English in 'Mule Bone' The Negros universal mimicry is not so much a thing in itself as an evidence of something that permeates his entire self. And that thing is drama. (Hurston, 830) In her own words, Hurston captures the gritty picture she paints in the highly disputed early 20th century drama, Mule Bone, co-written by fellow Harlem renaissance icon Langston Hughes. Mule Bone is set in a fictionalized version of Hurstons hometown, an all black community in Eatonville, Florida where she spent the early years of her teen life living with her father following her mothers death. Hurstons earliest memoirs indicate that the Eatonville of her childhood, much like the Eatonville of the stage, had two churches and no jail. Based on the short story A Bone of Contention which Hurston penned in 1929, Mule Bone draws heavily from Hurstons anthropological work which she compiled from visits to all black communities in the southern United States. Hughes and Hurston collaboratively worked A Bone of Contention into a ru nning dialogue set for the stage, however; this project would eventually tear the two authors apart after discrepancies in the text became insurmountable. As a piece of social criticism, Mule Bone is much like other comedies, however; the high level of diction stemming from what linguistic scholars have recently named African-American vernacular English (AAVE) set a new standard in realism for African-Americans on stage. Standard English (SE) has been studied in volume after volume of deep structure analysis and lexical origins, only recently has AAVE received the same attention in the form of through analysis that SE has enjoyed for years. Researchers have found the main differences between AAVE and SE lie in subtle rule changes. Where AAVE allows for consonant cluster reduction, the absence of the copula, invariant or habitual forms of to be, time reference markers, and multiple negation (Mufwene, 1) SE does not have such allowances. So much of Hurstons voice relies on the accurate portrayal of AAVE. A voice which Holloway describes as recursive; it begins, it names, it activates, it calls us back to a primal ground. (Holloway, 113) Hurston was striving to write a dialogue which, until this point, had been poorly recorded and often stereotyped African-Americans as dim-witted, primitive and wild. In her highly acclaimed anthropological essay Characteristics of Negro Expression, Hurston sums up the realization of a pure black dialect and comments on the unnatural dialogue credited to the Negro so far: If we are to believe the majority of the writers of Negro dialect and the burnt-cork artists, Negro speech is a weird thing, full of ams and Ises. Fortunately we dont have to believe them. We may go directly to the Negro and let him speak for himself. (Hurston, 845-846) Dialect is a term linguists struggle to define as one cannot set firm boundaries around a shapeless, often regional form of speech. Tracing history and the introduction of Africans to America, researchers have roughly sketched out the origins of what is now covered by the umbrella label AAVE. Originally Pidgin French (later known as Creole) and Pidgin English were derived from Portuguese. These languages were spread to West Africa, and the first African-Asian trade involving the west Pacific, including India, China, and later Hawaii, brought the seeds of African-American English all across the globe. Charles S. Johnson, a prominent scholar of African-American English surmised that Negro dialect turns out to be a repository for the seventeenth century speech of the first English colonizers, (Dillard, 39) this theory, along with others that rely on berating African-American culture as the white mans castoff, fell by the wayside as more scientific research was done on the structure of A AVE; revealing the blending of both native tongues and new forms of Pidgin English as the origins of African-American English in the United States. Deeply seeded in the Portuguese origins from which AAVE seems to have stemmed is the fundamental difference most noticeable to most SE speakers. Dillard examines a sentence such as: An so I comin down an she out there blabbin her mouth told my sister I was playin hookey from school. In which, he explains, there are no lexical anomalies from SE, nor any alien forms, although sometimes usage is casual and illiterate, it follows many of the same conventions as does SE. (Dillard, 40) However, it is the syntactical analysis of AAVE that reveals the most information. Dillard points out that an obligatory category in SE: verb tense, can be ignored in what he refers to as, Black English. While it is interesting to peruse these volumes of thoroughly dissected AAVE, it is important to remember Hurston and Hughes goal in penning Mule Bone; the accurate portrayal of the language of life in a racially un-oppressed southern black community. Hurston failed to capture the elusive dialect in perfect written form, insofar as researchers are concerned, as often she substitutes more readily recognizable structures in place of the hard to read, more accurate written compositions, which she could have transcribed from tapes gathered during her anthropological studies. None the less, Hurston and Hughes managed to convey the sounds of AAVE, its subtle inflections and outlandish expressions, which in consideration of the theatrical backdrop Mule Bone enjoyed, remains of higher importance than their choice of spelling. Hughes seems to have played a lesser role in designating the reality of dialogue in Mule Bone as critics have commented on other literary work he published as stale, flat, and spiritless. (Redding, 73) Further examination of his literary track record reveals that as Hughes matured and evolved as a human being, so did his writing. One critics nostalgic view of Hughes reveals the disgust within a literary niche in response to his stronghold on his roots. While Hughess rejection of his own growth shows an admirable loyalty to his self-commitment as the poet of the simple, Negro common-folk the peasant, the laborer, the city slum-dweller, it does a disservice to his art. (Redding, 74) This diehard image of the common black man is the cornerstone of the Mule Bone community, and an important role Hughes facilitated transcribing A Bone of Contention into a feasible piece of dramatic text. Within Mule Bone, concrete examples of Hurston and Hughess regionalized diction are plenteous, the play is written strictly in dialect. Breaking these forms of speech into appropriate categories is essential in an analysis of the text. Hurston reveals in Characteristics of Negro Expression, that the most basic language is one which relies on comparisons, rather than extensive descriptions to elaborate meaning. She supposes the inherent ease of parallelisms as the natural form from which all other descriptive speech is derived. And in doing so, Hurston recognizes African-Americans as the contributors of broad, often natural similes and metaphors, the double descriptive (such as high-tall, little-tee-ninchy, kill-dead), and verbal nouns (such as funeralize, puts the shamery on him, and uglying away) to the English language. (Hurston, 832-833) Mule Bone is packed full of these elements, a few examples of the co-authors awareness to the vivid language associated with similes are as follows: Id beat her till she smell like onions. (Bass, 52) Id stomp her till she rope like okra. (Bass, 52) Id romp her till she slack like lime. (Bass, 52) The first example is self explanatory, however the second and third are a bit more elusive in their meaning. Okra is a non-native English word introduced by African-Americans, one of the dozen or so words researchers formally recognize as African in origin, and refers to a particular kind of vegetable. The meaning is derived from the strings of gooey sap exuded by cooked okra when its eaten. Hurstons simile paints the picture of a beating so severe; one might be left oozing blood. Slack like lime is a term which has apparently fallen by the wayside, as no formal explanation seems to exist. Smell like a nest of yellowhammers was another elusive term, yellowhammers are a type of bird, however; there is little to no evidence that shows any connection between the two. The characters within Mule Bone relate everything to a grounded understanding of their world. Every description involves something physical; a tangible piece of their surroundings that fundamentally represents the implied meaning. As an example, in the opening lines, Hambo retorts that his baldness doesnt matter because he dont want nothin-not even hair-between (he) and God. (Bass, 49) The description of old Brazzles mule lends itself nicely as an example of the physical aspect of everyday speech. He was so skinny you could do a weeks washing on his ribs for a washboard and hang em up on his hip-bones to dry. (Bass, 53) Or, Clarkes description of Daisy a great big mangoa sweet smell, you know, with a strong flavor, but not something you could mash up like a strawberry. Something with a body to it. (Bass, 60) Several languages of West Africa denote the creation of man to a God beating a drum; the shockwaves of each beat resonating throughout mankind. This kind of primal being, a connection with the physical universe, comes to life as Hurston examines this feeling as related to African-American dance, she says: The performer flexes one knee sharply, assumes a ferocious face mask, thrusts the upper part of the body forward with clenched fists, elbows taut as in hard running or grasping a thrusting blade. That is all. Bit the spectator himself adds the picture of ferocious assault, hears the drums and finds himself keeping time with the music and tensing himself for the struggle. It is compelling insinuation. (Hurston, 835) This to Hurston is the embodiment of drama. Fundamentally, Hurston feels as though African-Americans are drama. She feels as though each aspect of the Negro life is dramatized, lifted above the mundane, and enacted, not lived. In conclusion, studying the development of AAVE in conjunction with the changing social atmosphere of the Harlem renaissance and the conversion of Hurstons short story to a dramatic work, has greatly increased the significance of the text as a piece of self-proclamation for the African-American in the early 20th century. The combination of Hurstons anthropological experience and Hughess steadfast hold on his culture reaches new heights in the realization of a true to life representation of African-American life. Place was important to Zora Neale Hurston-she would spend most of her adult life in search of a place she could claim as her own-one that would support, with fervor equal to hers, her cultural nationalism, that would respect the legacies represented in the voices that she recorded-voices that evidenced the traditions of the world. (Holloway, 113) Holloway touches upon an important conclusion one comes to in viewing Mule Bone as a text among many others. Hurston and Hughes strove to find a place among the Zekes of The Octoroon and the Jupiters of Poes The Gold Bug, and succeeded wildly. The dialect of each character in Mule Bone lends itself to the subtle twisting and careful crafting applied by the co-authors. In a way, Hurston and Hughes celebrate themselves in the colorful use of dialect. To close, Holloway sums up the atmosphere one gets a feel for with this use of dialect, she says, (it) speaks of the primacy of the word, the instrumentation of literary talent and the metaphorical adornment of a culture that recaptures myth on its tongue and uses the adornment to represent itself as black. (Holloway, 115) Works Cited Bass, George Hurston, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston: Mule Bone: A comedy of Negro Life. New York: Perennial, 1991. Dillard, J.L.. Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States. New York: Random House, 1972. Holloway, Karla F.C., ed. The Character of the Word: The Texts of Zora Neale Hurston. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987. Hurston, Zora Neale. Characteristics of Negro Expression. Wall, Cheryl A., comp. Zora Neale Hurston: Folklore, memoirs, and other writings. New York: The Library of America, 1995. Mufwene, Salikoko S., John R. Rickford, Guy Bailey, John Baugh, eds. African-American English: Structure, history and use. London: Routledge, 1998. Redding, Saunders. Old Forms, New Rhythms, New Words. Mullen, Edward J., comp. Critical Essays on Langston Hughes. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1986.

Romanesque Architecture and Theology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Romanesque Architecture and Theology - Essay Example By the end of 12th century the roman art of decoration and architecture had spreads wide in Europe as Jackson explains and had overtaken any form of earlier arts to become the household mostly in the design of cathedrals, palaces and other important buildings that were very significant to the lives of the people . Jackson further explained that, the church embraced the Romanesque architecture to a great deal, and the clergy afterwards started to conduct schools using the arts where students could be taught the philosophy, theology, and meanings of letters mostly using the creativity of the Roman art. Jackson explains that, the Romanesque architecture was very influential to the Christian theology in that, in the 11th and the 12th centuries, all the major churches and monarchs could only be constructed using the laid down specifications that borrowed heavily from the architecture . The art was embraced so that all the religious arts could offer easily recognizable buildings through the severity and restraint of the ornamentation used and in fact, as Jackson explains, the art and ornamentation was confined to the hands of the clerics who extensively used the art in the monastic architecture. It would therefore follow that; the use of the art in the monastic construction could only have a specific symbolism that the art conveyed to the early believers . Stalley further explains that the Romanesque architecture to a large extent, although used for ornamentation and construction played a vital role in preserving the memories of saints and martyrs for commemoration by the faithful . 4 . Therefore, by being used in the teaching of philosophy and theology as well as representation of the mystery sand doctrine of the church, the Romanesque architecture became very vital in transforming and influencing the theology of the day in the medieval church. Symbolism The major characteristic behind the use of the Romanesque architecture and its influence to the early church theology wash the symbolism in which the decorations and constructions of the churches and monasteries represented. The symbolic use of numbers, figures and other representations proved to be very effective in advancing the theology and the doctrines of the early church. Baptism which has been a major ritual in the current church according to Ferguson could be considered as a symbolic rite through which the faithful denounce the sinful state to acquire a new life that could be considered to be inline with Christian teaching5. Such a symbolic rite has gained much credence and respect in the church today an d has been vital in the doctrine of the church through which one declares to be in communion with the Christ. In addition to these sacred rituals, according to Crook, the arts have continued to be used in the religious doctrines because of the value of language that the arts speak and the fuller life of Christian experiences that the arts have portrayed overtime6. Stalley explains that the design of the church was mainly in the form of common geometrical shapes such as octagons, cross shapes, squares, octagons and other symbolic shapes that had various meanings to the teachings of the church7. The shapes to a large extent were symbolic according to the Christian beliefs and the symbolic nature of the buildings played a major role in extending the belief from the teachings to the actual construction of the churches. Stalley

Starting and Naming a Business (Administrative Law and Government Research Paper

Starting and Naming a Business (Administrative Law and Government Regulation) - Research Paper Example Through franchising, the business will be associated with well developed brands and reputation. Disadvantages; franchisees usually have to operate according to the operations rules of the franchisor. Franchisees are required to pay ongoing fees to the franchisor. There is less control especially while selling the business, since there are procedures to follow (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2011). The following are the disadvantages and advantages of a sole proprietorship. Advantages; it is easy and uncomplicated to start this form of business. There are few formal commerce requirements. There is direct motivation since the entrepreneur assumes all risks and earns all the profit. There is better control since the entrepreneur is the sole decision maker. There are minimal legal expenses for starting sole proprietorship. There are no company tax payments. Disadvantages; the entrepreneur make all business decisions and assumes all responsibilities of the business, including business liabilities in case of insolvency. Entrepreneurs may experience difficulties while raising cash needed to start and sustain a business (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2011). According to Pride, Hughes & Kapoor (2011), the following are the disadvantages and advantages of partnerships. Advantages; there are no prescribed requirements for the formation of a partnership. There are no prescribed requirements for the business operations. Therefore, it is inexpensive to operate partnerships. Partners are taxed individually, and this may result to lower taxation. Disadvantages; partnership is not a separate lawful entity implying that partners are, in their individual capacity, accountable for the business debts. The death of a partner may result to termination of the partnership. There may be difficulties in the decision making process. The following are the disadvantages and advantages of a corporation.

Environmental agency Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

Environmental agency - Case Study Example Economic competition on a global scale brought about by the movement towards globalization has also contributed immense pressures on the environment. This is also argued in the context that sustainable development among poor nations had been a difficult task, given the tendency of these countries to undertake exploitive economic activities (mostly through extractive industries such as mining, forestry and agriculture). The depletion of their natural resources have only given these underdeveloped countries temporary economic activities which would disappear as soon as their resources have been depleted. It is often perceived that free trade and globalization only benefits those whio have the financial leverage, and at the expense of those who do not. Among the Third World countries facing such problems in terms of environmental degradation and growing economic pressures in the face of an ever-increasing population is the Philippines. A prime example of the high price the country has to face in its struggle for economic survival is the plight of the Pasig river. The Pasig River is the main river system in Metro Manila. Technically an estuary channel, its 25-kilometer stretch connects the large lake known as Laguna de Bay to Manila Bay. Laguna Lake is one of the largest freshwater lakes in the world had for centuries been a source of food, raw materials and the site of various economic activities. ... In the wet season when water elevation in the lake is higher than that of Manila Bay, the natural channel flow is from the lake emptying into the sea. The river is an invaluable ecosystem linking the lake and the sea. It is among the Philippines' numerous irreplaceable natural resources. Fish have spawned and their fries and fingerlings have been nurtured by the mineral-rich contents of this estuarine channel. Settlements have long occupied portions of the Pasig River even before the Spaniards colonized the Philippines. It served as the main highway among settlements located along its banks and functioned as the umbilical cord to other settlements within the interior locations both near and distant from Laguna de Bay. Like many rivers all over the world, the Pasig River has suffered from abuse and neglect. The Pasig River and its tributaries have long been pressed into service and these have taken their toll on the river. The once pristine and sparkling waters which provided clean drinking water to the elegant Spanish villas lining its banks has now been transformed into a virtual waste basin for an economically struggling industrial center that serves as the heart of a nation. More than 300 factories and 10,000 households have replaced the dainty native huts and romantic Spanish villas of old. The sweet and quenching waters have become a reeking soup of industrial and domestic wastes. The once abundant fish and plant life have been replace by only the toughest of scavengers, both animal and human alike. It is estimated that 330 tons of domestic and industrial wastes are discharged into the river every day. This

Memorandum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Memorandum - Essay Example For instance, the 21st century has been hailed as the Asian century. China, followed by India, are powers that hold the position wherein they can influence international politics in a big way. In addition to this, the rise of international organizations, like the BRIC and the ASEAN, have great implications that challenge the role of the United States as the supreme nation. These organizations, often dominant players from the Developing World hold important implications for the United States, since they challenge the world order existent and the implications it holds for them. As a Policy Analyst, I would say, that a Multi-Polar world order is in the offing. Besides the rise of developing countries and middle powers, other factors, like the rise of non-state actors, besides international organizations, play a major role in deciding their implications for the United States. Terrorism, as a non-state actor is a major issue that continues to haunt the United States. The US policy in Afghanistan-Pakistan and the stand taken, are extremely important in this case. Besides this, religion and ethnicity have assumed a rather big meaning today, and this has considerable importance, since United States is largely a melting pot. In forums like the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council, the United States’ dominant position is not welcome, among these actors. Nations like India and China and other South-Asian nations often resist such a position. In addition to this, the Af-Pak policy is often a bone of contention, besides the stand taken on Palestine. As a policy analyst, I would recommend that the United States should definitely look at directly countering

The Relationship between Multidisciplinary Teams Essay

The Relationship between Multidisciplinary Teams - Essay Example The supplying of medicines to the public is highly dependent on the type of medicine. Medicines are legally divided into three categories which include: Pharmacy (P), Prescription Only Medicine (POM), and General Sale List (GSL) (Jones, 2004). While GSL are supplied to the public through a wide range of facilities, such as supermarkets, P and POM medicines are only available at registered pharmacies. Moreover, in order to buy POM, the buyer must have prescription from a certified practitioner. Currently in Europe, there are two agencies that provide drug license: the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) and the European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA). Mostly companies apply for an EMEA license as it is accepted all around EU while MHRA mainly functions within the United Kingdom (Davis, 2003). A company may apply for a drug license through a centralized system or a decentralized (or mutual recognition) system. In a centralized system, the committee assesses t he drugs to be used by human and monitors its impact before approving or disproving a drug for a license (Jones, 2004). One the other hand, in the decentralized system, a company may apply for a license in different member states, such as MHRA in the UK. One member state assesses the drug and based on the result other member states may object or agree to license the drug. If one or more member states object to the drug, the Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP) then advices the EU commission on whether to license the drug or not (Davis, 2003). The Medicines Act of 1968 is still used for the prescription, supply, and administration of medicine (Sturm & Unutzer, 2000). Back in 1989, the circumstances in which nurses might prescribe a drug were taken into consideration and it was recommended that nurses having qualification of a district nurse or health visitor should be given permission to prescribe certain drugs falling in the list of limited formulary (Department of He alth, 1989). This was implemented recommendation was implemented nationally in 1998 in England. The main route of drug supply is through a pharmacist who may prescribe POMs and P medicines (Jones, 2004). They may also prescribe black triangle drugs (Jones, 2004). However, this principle is not rigid and can be bent in situations that require some other health professionals to supply the drugs to assure health care (Crown, 1999). The medicine legislation allows the dentists and doctors to supply and administer medicines and also allows nurses and health workers to do so as directed by the doctor or dentist (Nuttall & Rutt-Howard, 2011). Moreover, the legislation also allows certain health professionals, including occupational therapists, chiropodists, and radiographers, to supply certain medicines. In August 2000, the Medicine Legislation was amended in order to clearly define and explain the Patient Group Directions PGDs and include other private and voluntary services (RCN, 2006). The amendment clearly defines the limited situations in which medicines may be administered under the PGDs as not doing so would jeopardize the health of the patient (RCN, 2006). A multidisciplinary non-medical prescribing team (MDPT) includes a team leader, which must be employed by the trust, who develops and maintains the roles of each member in the team using his or her professional skills. The MDPT plays an important role in shaping

Accounting Synoptic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Accounting Synoptic - Essay Example The criticisms of traditional budgets as identified are- Traditional budgets are often contradictory and rarely strategically focused. Traditional budgets are costly and time consuming. Traditional Budgets lack flexibility and responsiveness. As compared to the time taken to prepare a traditional budget, it adds little value. Traditional Budget concentrates on cost reduction and not on value creation. Traditional Budget often acts as a barrier to change. Traditional Budgets seem to strengthen vertical control and command. Traditional Budgets do not reflect the emerging network structures that organizations are adopting. Traditional Budgets encourage perverse behaviors and gamming. Traditional Budgets are based on guesswork and assumptions that are unsupported. Traditional Budgets make customers feel undervalued. Traditional Budgets are updated and developed too infrequently, usually annually. Traditional Budgets bring about departmental barriers inspite of encouraging knowledge shari ng. The criticisms laid by Beyond Budgeting Round Table are more applicable to non-profit organizations than profit organizations. It is said so because the objectives of non-profit organizations are not specific and often link to multiple activities which necessitates trade off. Non-profit organizations are dominated by professionals and thus are less accessible to control systems and measures. Non-profit organizations incur a huge amount of discretionary fixed cost and the relationship between outputs and inputs are difficult to specify which raises difficulty in ascertaining profit. Non-profit organizations with their rigid rules and guidelines face problems in adapting to the changing policies, regulations and measures.... The criticisms laid by Beyond Budgeting Round Table are more applicable to non-profit organizations than profit organizations. It is said so because the objectives of non-profit organizations are not specific and often link to multiple activities which necessitates trade off. Non-profit organizations are dominated by professionals and thus are less accessible to control systems and measures. Non-profit organizations incur a huge amount of discretionary fixed cost and the relationship between outputs and inputs are difficult to specify which raises difficulty in ascertaining profit. Non-profit organizations with their rigid rules and guidelines face problems in adapting to the changing policies, regulations and measures. Non-profit organizations use the concepts of traditional budgets to ascertain cost and reduction of cost of activities, but the members are very little concerned to the developments, improvements and benefits which the activities are pursuing or shall pursue. The stri ct governance under which non-profit organizations operate has made it static, inflexible, not responsive to the changing environment, not focused on the formulation of procedural strategic plans, has lead to increase in discretionary fixed cost and lacks vertical control and supervision. Thus the shortcomings of traditional budget have decreased the value of non-profit organization in the current scenario inspite of creation of value, which have in turn lead to decrease in its significance.

Labour Process Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Labour Process Theory - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that Labour Process Theory (LBT) is a concept that proposes the practices undertaken by the management to control the workforce within the organizational environment and ensure utmost productivity. It is believed that from the past few decades, LPT has been a core subject of the Critical Management Studies (CMS) that was formed by Harry Braverman in the year 1970 using the ideas developed by Karl Marx. Since its introduction in the stream of modern management ideologies, LPT has delivered huge contribution in analyzing the work performed within the organization, as per the desired level of productivity and hence, creating a work organization. LPT was created following the ideologies of Marx that suggest the fundamental aspect for comprehending the work organization is based upon the structure of the community within which the organization is functioning instead of human psychology. LPT primarily emphasizes on how individuals work in an orga nization, what/who controls the work done by these individuals, what are the skills used by these individuals when carrying out their work and in what ways are those individuals remunerated for the work they have done. LBT has been successful in creating a linkage with the management strategy of an organization through its involvement and set of assumptions. LPT provides an understanding regarding how the management of an organization limits the power of the working class who have the skills to carry out the given task. LPT is a conceptual approach that has been in use, as per the capitalist method of production that provides a deep insight into worker-management relations in the workplace. Considering its applicability, it is also perceived that LPT causes serious insights in today’s world of work, management control issues and political aspects in the workplace. In relation to the capitalists approach used in LPT, managerial control in the workplace has been a highly debate d topic.

Readymade Garment Industry in India Essay Example for Free

Readymade Garment Industry in India Essay

Black People and Perfect Shape Essay Example for Free

Black People and Perfect Shape Essay In the short stories of â€Å"Why Looks Are the Last Bastion of Discrimination† and â€Å"The â€Å"Black Table† Is Still There† there are many differences from both stories. Both stories talk about the different sizes, shapes, color, and how people are being racist. The first story â€Å"Why Looks Are the Last Bastion of Discrimination. † They first talked about how in the 1994 in Texas they did not want an obese lady to be a bus driver because of how big she looked. The company doctor stated that she was not up to the task because he said she was â€Å"waddling down the hall† (Rhode). All though he did not even perform any agility test on her to even see if she would be able to evacuate the bus in case of any emergency and get the kids off the bus in time. That was similar to the second story whereas in 1995 he was surprised when he walked into the cafeteria and noticed that they had a â€Å"black† table. He thought after this long that he would never run into something like that again. He never understood the â€Å"black† table â€Å"what did it mean? † (Rhodes) He never took the chance to sit there because he always thought if he would sit there that would be making a statement of â€Å"I was afraid that by sitting at the table I’d lose all my white friends† (Rhodes). They were discriminating against the â€Å"black† men because he would not sit at the â€Å"black table† as what they would call it. This man just refused to be labeled and would not sit at this table and he would always into the cafeteria with â€Å"white† people. Segregated was something that he never understood as a kid and he was very shocked when he went into the junior high after twenty-seven years to still see that there was a black table. In the first story they had a case in 2006 in New, Jersey where a cocktail waitress had gained some weight. They never thought anything about it just that she was getting fat and that was not a good look for their waitresses. In the contract it even stated to keep ‘an hourglass figure† that was â€Å"height and weight appropriate† (Rhodes). When she went to order a larger shirt they denied her because they said their waitresses do not go up on size unless they have had breast implants. They unfairly discriminated this young lady because she was not â€Å"the perfect shape and size†. Actually what is the perfect shape and size in society? Is anybody really the â€Å"perfect† size or is everybody their own shape. In the second story they were very racist because nobody cared to segregate and change how everybody sat in the cafeteria. Everybody always assumed that he should sit at the â€Å"black† table but he refused to sit there. Graham always wondered why they would all segregate themselves like that but he noticed when he went back to the junior high twenty-seven years later he noticed that now it was not just the blacks that were segregated; the athletes, Italian, kids that were into heavy medal and smoked pot also all had their table that they called their own. In the first story they also discriminated in 2001 to Jennifer Portnick when they denied he of being an aerobics instructor because her â€Å"image† did not look like she was fit since she weighed 240 pounds. Come to find out Jessica was very fit and toned â€Å"she would work out six days a week, taught back-to-back classes, and had no shortage of willing students† (Rhodes). It is really sad that this has gotten a lot worse since 2001. People do not get the chance at certain because they are overweight or because of their appearance. In this time we should not be having the entire discrimination because of size, shape, or even race. According to the first story we still have a lot of these things going on and with Rhode he was shocked that he still saw the â€Å"black† table in the junior high twenty-seven years later. Why would people separate themselves? That is a question that will never have an answer because it is something that is still going on in this day. If discrimination was taught to us to be so wrong why would we want to keep this going? Should this not be a cycle that we want to stop and teach our kids something different about this? Discrimination will probably be something that we deal with forever even though it is not good.

Climate Change And The Kyoto Protocol Politics Essay

Climate Change And The Kyoto Protocol Politics Essay The Kyoto Protocol under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international agreement that serves to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% by 2012. The Protocol was adopted on December the 11th, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and then kicked off on 16 February, 2005. This lengthy timespan was as such due to the terms agreed upon in Kyoto, stating that at least 55 parties had to ratify the agreement and the total combined emissions of the ratifying parties had to equal at least 55% of the global production of greenhouse gases. The official rules as to the implementation of the Protocol are called the Marrakesh Accords as they were agreed on at the 7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) in Marrakesh, 2001. All parties that sign and ratify the protocol are committed to reduce emissions of Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons and Sulphur hexafluoride. Should the participant countries fail to reduce their emissions to target levels, they are required to engage in emissions trading (the buying of credits from other participating countries that are able to exceed their targets in order to offset the emissions so that the collective target of reduction by 5.2% can still be reached). Under the Protocol, countries have to monitor and keep exact records of trades carried out. They also are responsible for monitoring the progress towards their emission targets and a compliance system is put in place to ensure that parties meet their commitments as well as helping them do so should they have problems. The Protocol is designed to assist countries to adapt to the Negative effects of climate change and it facilitates development and distribution of means that could help counter act the impacts of climate change. The Kyoto Protocol is a crucial movement towards a global fight against the reduction of Greenhouse gases. As of September 2011, 191 countries have signed and ratified the protocol with the United States being the only nation to have signed but not ratified the protocol. The Bali Action Plan The Bali Road Map, formulated in 2007 at the Bali Climate Change conference, consists of a number of decisions that that according to the UNFCCC, represent the various tracks that are essential to reaching a secure climate future. The Bali Road Plan incorporates the Bali Action Plan which charted the course for a new negotiating process designed to tackle climate change. All nations at the conference in Bali acknowledged that there is conclusive evidence of global warming and that it is crucial that humans make every possible effort to reduce the risks of the possible severe impacts that climate change could have. The outcome that was reached recognized that there was a need for deep cuts in global emissions and that the emissions of developed countries must fall by 10-40% by the year 2020. The Cancun Agreements Settled on December 11 at Cancun, Mexico, the Cancun agreements represent vital steps to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and building a sustainable future. The objectives of the agreements included: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions over time so that the global average temperature rise is kept below 2 degrees. To encourage participation of all countries in reducing the emissions with proportionality to each countries responsibilities and capabilities. Ensure international transparency of the actions taken by countries. Making sure that global progress towards the long term goal is reviewed on a regular basis. Mobilizing the development and transfer of clean technology to boost efforts to counter climate change. Provide funds in the short and long term to enable developing countries to take greater and more effective action against climate change. Assist vulnerable people in the world to adapt to the unavoidable impacts of climate change. Protect the worlds forests which are vital to reducing levels of Carbon dioxide and increasing the levels of oxygen. Establish effective institutions and systems which will ensure that these objectives are implemented successfully. (Note: all objectives adapted from http://cancun.unfccc.int/what-governments-will-do-in-2011/ ) The agreements were aimed to move the international action on climate change and global warming forward by primarily bringing countries greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets under the UNFCCC process. COP17/CMP7 COP17 refers to the 17th Conference of the Parties to the United Framework Convention on Climate Change, while CMP7 refers to the 7th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The COP meets annually to assess and discuss progress in dealing with climate change. They make decisions and adopt resolutions which are all filed in the reports published by the Conference of the Parties. The 17th conference of the parties (COP17) was held in Durban in December 2011. Its purpose and aim was to build on the agreements that were reached during COP16 in Cancun and to establish a new climate change regime. Being a developing country, South Africa would like to see a balance between climate and development initiatives as well as global action that ensures that temperature increases are kept below 2degrees Celsius. Another aim was to have countries design institutions to provide developing countries with adequate and efficient climate support. South Africa also planned on showcasing the way in which climate change affects a developing country as well as the responses it has implemented. At the conference in Durban all goals were eventually reached and decided on with the nations agreeing on: Adopting a universal agreement on climate change A framework for the reporting of emission reductions for developed and developing countries. An urgent support package for developing nations that are suffering the most under the effects of climate change. The package is to include an agreement to form a green climate fund. Canadas withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol On 13 December 2011, Canada withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol stating that it did not represent the way forward for them. It seems that Canada has never stood fully behind the Kyoto Protocol as rather than cutting their emissions by 6%, they were headed for a rise of 16-30%. They stated that should they have decided to remain in the protocol, it would have cost them $13.6 billion in fines or penalties seeing as they failed to reach their target. The Canadian government stated that this would result in a severe blow to their economy and could result in either a mass loss of jobs or approximately an additional $1600 per family in tax so as to accumulate the money to be used for emissions trading with nations that exceeded their targets in order to offset the amount so that Canada could in theory have reached their target. Instead the government ducked out early to avoid any cost and slammed the protocol by stating that it fails to include the worlds two largest greenhouse gas emitters being China and the United States. They said that the protocol only serves to harm hurt Canadas competitiveness and overall it proves ineffective at reducing global emissions. The decision was met with disappointed emotions all over, with environment critic Megan Leslie saying that pulling out only saves Canada from having to report on its failures, she went on to say, What this is really about is the fact that our government is abdicating its international obligations. Its like were the kid in school who knows theyre gonna fail the class, so we have to drop it before that actually happens. Elizabeth May, a life long environmentalist and green party leader went on to say that it is unnecessary and that an agreement could most likely have been easily reached. She is quoted as saying, This is not just big, this is disastrous for Canada, and Im embarrassed to be represented by this government. According to Environment Minister Peter Kent, Canada will now look forward to a more global deal that will incorporate all nations in the fight against climate change and reducing carbon emissions. Canadas withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol means that it is now really only the Europeans that are staying with the Protocol. Canada has now taken a similar stance to the Americans by aiming only to reduce carbon emissions without restricting their growth as a country. As Greenblog states, their withdrawal doesnt change much for the fight against reducing carbon emissions as Canada was never really a part of it seeing as their emissions have increased by 20% rather than decreasing. The blog states that future UN negotiations will certainly become even more polarized and the mistrust created will surely delay, or in worse case even sabotage, efforts to secure a global climate deal for 2020 and beyond. But one thing that is painfully clear now is that a legally binding climate deal does not guarantee countries wont ignore or walk away from their commitments. Their statement is easy to agree with because Canada has now made use of their legal right to walk away. They are now the first country to leave the Protocol and there is no reason why they cant now be joined by more countries. As the Blog states, this opens up a whole new side to the case involving possible instability and distrust between nations which will need to be overcome should the fight against climate change be successful. Countries not in favour of the Kyoto Protocol USA- the USA is not in favour due to the fact that the Protocol does not take into account emissions from developing countries which according to the USA will soon match their own emissions. Australia has not ratified the protocol saying that- it will not ratify the Protocol until the USA does and until developing countries are included. Canada has left the Protocol. Source 1 gives a clear indication of the Participants and the nations not in favour of the Protocol as of 2012. Source 1 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol participation map 2010.png Kyoto Protocol participation map as of February, 2012 Green indicates countries that have ratified the treaty (Annex I II countries in dark green) Brown = No intention to ratify[1] Red = Countries which have withdrawn from the Protocol.[2] Grey = no position taken or position unknown South Africas position on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol The South African Government have taken a stance on climate change that incorporates the fact that the poor will be most severely affected by it even though they have contributed the least to its causes. Due to Africas high level of poverty, they are thus most vulnerable to the effects of Climate Change. The government believes that Climate change is a global problem, which requires global solutions, which can only be attained through the cooperative efforts of all nations and not by a single country working on its own. The government set objectives which are outlined in the National Climate Change Response White Paper. These objectives can be briefly understood as being: To help and support all South Africans affected by Climate Change and to respond to the impacts of it in doing so. To work together with all nations in the international effort to lessen and end the effects of climate change. South Africa agrees with global scientific opinions which have stated that it is vital that the average global temperatures dont rise any more than 2 degrees so as to avoid possible social and environmental consequences. As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, South Africa contributes its fair share in the fight to lower the global amount of greenhouse gases that are emitted. However they are classified as a developing country and hence they are not subjected to the more demanding commitments placed on developed countries. South Africa has taken an interesting approach toward the greenhouse gas reduction efforts by stating that they believe these efforts should work in tandem with an approach that empowers the poor thus ensuring human dignity while lowering greenhouse gas emissions. This furthers their initial beliefs of he fact that the poor population on the African continent have contributed the least yet suffer the most. The media has not made much of Africas position on the Kyoto Protocol. What we can however gather from previous sources is that nearly all African countries have signed and ratified the treaty. All countries in Africa are also classified as developing, and hence they are subject to less demanding targets for their emission reductions. What we have also learnt is that Africa, because of its poverty, is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and hence it is in the continents best interest that all countries support the global problem of climate change so as to lessen the effects it has on Africa as a continent. Africa should be of a similar belief as South Africa, which is that the poor have contributed least to climate change yet they suffer the most. With this belief, the continent will go a long way to the fight against both poverty and climate change. Somerset College and Climate Change In my opinion there are two main areas of Somerset College that may lead to high carbon emissions. The first area is very direct as it relates to the transport the school uses as well as the vehicles that bring students to and from school everyday. Somerset College sees hundreds if not thousands of cars pass through its gates daily and these cars are responsible for releasing carbon monoxide gases into the air. Not only does it harm our environment but it contributes to a high amount of carbon emissions that affect climate change. The second area involves Somerset Colleges Administration and printing system that is responsible for printing many hundreds of pages of paper for school and admin purposes on a daily basis. This indirectly affects climate change as paper is made from trees that produce oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the air. In this way, carbon emissions wont decrease and hence it makes the school indirectly responsible for letting out carbon emissions. Somerset College have however started moving towards a greener future by printing less and less paper and making everything electronic. They also dont make use of air conditioners and instead use fans. Electricity to certain parts of the school is provided by solar panels and the school has implemented bus services to lessen the amount of vehicles on the property. They have also installed new hot water geysers around the school that reduce energy consumption by nearly fifty percent when compared with the old ones. The school also has an eco-club which ensures that the school is always striving to do what is best for the environment.

Danger and NASCAR Essay examples -- Racing Death Essays

Danger and NASCAR â€Å"I had never even heard of Dale Earnhardt until he crashed into eternity, but now here I am writing a column about him† (King, 64). This reaction, recorded by Florence King in National Review, seems to be a common one since Earnhardt’s death in the Daytona 500. Dale Earnhardt was a driver in the Winston Cup circuit for the National Association of Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR). Despite the fact that he is arguably the most popular NASCAR driver, many people did not know who he was until he died. It is sad to realize that sometimes it takes death to become recognized. However, Dale is not the only NASCAR driver who is becoming known from his death. In a span of nine months, Tony Roper, Adam Petty, Kenny Irwin, and Earnhardt himself all have died on three different racetracks (Hinton, 133). NASCAR is focusing on the pressing issue of how to make racing as safe as possible, while remaining competitive. Some of this deals with learning from thes e deaths. All sports have risks. Unfortunately, sometimes we learn most from our mistakes. NASCAR is learning, and changing. Despite the fact that NASCAR (National Association of Stock Car Auto Racing) has a $1.7 billion, 8-year deal (Hinton, 135) with Fox, it actually had very humble beginnings. Many debate the very beginnings of racing itself. Richard Petty, a 200 race winner nicknamed â€Å"The King,† once joked, â€Å"It was the day they built the second automobile† (Menzer, 57). NASCAR actually began with a bunch of â€Å"Good Ol’ Boys† from down south. Many of the original drivers were moonshine runners, transporting illegal whiskey to lots of places in the southeast. NASCAR â€Å"was born on December 14, 1947, during a meeting of thirty-f... ... June, 2001. Hunter, Don & Pearce, Al. The Illustrated History of Stock Car Racing. Osceola, WI: MBI Publishing Company, 1998. King, Florence. "The Misanthrope's Corner." National Review. 2 April, 2001: 64. McCormick, Steve: About.com. 27 Aug. 2001. 26 October 2001. http://nascar.about.com/library/weekly/aa082701a.htm Menzer, Joe. The Wildest Ride: A History of NASCAR. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. "NASCAR considers safety rules for super tracks." The Goshen News 24 Oct. 2001: B-2. "NASCAR Safety is the Issue." Advertising Age 72.9 (2/26/01): 28. Academic Search Elite. Palni Site Search. Goshen College Good Library. 25 October, 2001. Spencer, Lee. "NASCAR is Facing Pressure to Get up to Speed." Sporting News. 225.7 (2/12/01): 22. Academic Search Elite. Palni Site Search. Goshen College Good Library. 25 October, 2001.

A post-colonial canonical and cultural revision of Conan Doyles Holmes narratives :: Essays Papers

A post-colonial canonical and cultural revision of Conan Doyle's Holmes narratives Redefining the British literary canon as imperial construct and influence 'A canon,' Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffiin argue, 'is not a body of texts per se, but rather a set of reading practices....' (189). They define 'reading practices' as 'the enactment of innumerable individual and community assumptions, for example about genre, about literature, and even about writing....' (189). The purpose of the following discussion is to investigate the link between the British literary canon and its attendant culture. That culture, Said argues, was one which imperial and colonial ideology had infiltrated. "Imperialism", in this discussion, will be defined in Said's words as 'the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a distant territory....'(Culture 8). "Colonialism", likewise, will be noted as representing 'the implanting of settlements on distant territory....'(Culture 8). Increased imperialism and colonialism between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries resulted in the creation of a 'socially desirable, empowered sp ace in metropolitan England....[which was] connected by design, motive and development to distant or peripheral worlds....conceived of as desirable but subordinate....' (Culture 61). England viewed itself as the powerful economic, academic and military centre of its empire: the colonised native was reduced by 'the authority of the [Western] observer, and of European geographical centrality' to occupy 'a secondary racial, cultural, ontological status....' (Culture 70). The oppression of the native cultures of the colonized territories maintained the fantasy of the centrality and superiority of British culture. Said's argument, when combined with Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin's canon moulded by 'reading practices' which include 'community assumptions' (189), suggests that the bias toward priviliging its own imperial and colonial status in Britsh culture would logically lead that culture to accept texts which affirmed its imperial centrality and primacy. Said affirms this when he argues that the culture of imperial Britain encouraged 'canonical inclusion and exclusion....' (Culture 70). The first stage of questioning the canon and canonical texts as constructs of imperial ideology entails identifying 'unspoken subjects [i.e. marginalised, distorted representations of colonised cultures and individuals]' in texts accepted by their contemporary British culture. Said argues that the critical reappraisal of such texts 'entails reading the canon as a polyphonic accompaniment to the expansion of Europe, giving a revised direction and valence to such writers as Conrad and Kipling who have always been read as sports, not as writers whose manifestly imperialist subject matter has a long subterranean or implicit and proleptic life' in the works of preceeding generations of writers (Culture 71).

Abbie Hoffman: A Present Day Monologue :: essays research papers fc

My name is Abbie Hoffman. Steal this speech while square dancing in the Ice ages, it’s soon to be a major motion picture†¦ Yippie! Do you know what that means? That means that there’s a revolution on, that we can change an H to a Y., that we can bring more than 10,000 people to Lincoln Park in Chicago on a myth, a rumor, a story. Yippie! It means the home of the FREE and the land of the BRAVE. Chicago was a place for the brave to fight for their freedom. When we came to chicago, we thought, hey, they’ll put up some resistance, but they’ll give us a permit to have our little Yippie! get-together in the park. I mean shit, it’s our right. Mayor Daley, he didn’t give a shit about our â€Å"rights† he didn’t want one goddamn hippie in his city, let alone 10,000. He didn’t want chicago to have that reputation, HE didn’t want to have that reputation. Do you know what happened in Chicago? According to Mayor Daley, only a few minor injuries due to resisting arrest and rioting; according to some outside sources, and my own count, a couple people died and a lot of people were wounded because the pigs were beating on us for practicing our right to assemble peacefully. Hell, we were peaceful, a damn sight more peaceful than the cops. We were assembled to protest war, all we wanted to do was get together and smoke a little weed. The cops, they came at us with arms swinging. But I get ahead of myself. You’re all so young, you don’t know about Chicago’s other, meaner side.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Chicago, we Yippies wanted to have a rally, and Chicago was really central to the movement, so we petitioned the Chicago Parks Department for a permit to have bands come play during the week of the Democratic Convention in 1968. They stalled, and pretended to have little problems with the permit. No one was fooled. We sued them for denying us our constitutional rights; but we withdrew our suit when we saw who our judge was. His name was Judge Lynch, and he was mayor Daley’s friend or cousin or something. Very ironic...the next judge that we went before because the city was stalling was Judge Stahl. S-T-A-H-L. So in a nutshell, we said â€Å"can we have a get-together in the park?

Project Managers

With the rapid advances currently being made in information technology there has now become an increased need for Project Managers. The scale and number of projects has increased thereby increasing the risk associated with these projects. With this in mind the choosing of project managers with the required skills to ensure the successful completion of projects has become critical and organizations have recognized that the choosing of the right individual to lead a project can have a significant bearing on the success of the organization. There are countless project management certifications, methodologies and text books that give their own interpretation of what us considered a â€Å"best practice† and every methodology can bring value if applied appropriately. Methodologies are better viewed as valuable frameworks or toolkits from which a skilled and experienced Project Manager can select the relevant components, probably different components for different projects, and apply them where appropriate, not just for the sake of it or because it says so in the manual. So, if the methodologies and certifications only make up a part of the profile of a good project manager, what the other attributes and traits do we consider to be most important in a project manager?AdaptabilityAn often-used word, but project managers need to be able to react to change. They need to be dynamic, flexible and adaptable. Of course, setting out a comprehensive plan, with clear dependencies, milestones and completion dates is a key part of project planning but if all that was required to be a successful project manager was to set out a plan at the outset and then sit at the tiller and gently steer the project team through the plan, everybody would be doing it. When the inevitable happens and the risk becomes an issue, or the customer changes their requirement, or a key engineer resigns, this is when good project managers really come into their own. The ability to react quickly, to have an answer before most people have even realized what the question is and to have a contingency plan, a Plan B and a Plan C sets good project managers apart.PragmatismThe Project Manager who constantly falls back on, or some might say hides behind, process is unlikely to prosper in the real world. We'd all like to deliver our projects to the letter of a recognized methodology, but if it was as simple as just obtaining a PRINCE2 or Agile certification and then carrying the manual around with you, good project managers wouldn't command the salaries they do. A successful project manager will balance the essential process and rigor with the need to be pragmatic at times and to bend the rules occasionally. There's no room for mavericks when delivering large enterprise projects, and we'd recommend that doing things outside of process first receives the endorsement of somebody with appropriate authority, but when rigidly adhering to process means that you miss a customer delivery deadline that you would otherwise have hit, possibly with financial or reputational implications, that's the time when an experienced and aware project manager will propose the pragmatic approach.Logical Mind-setThe ability to look ahead and logically fit together the pieces of a complex implementation is of great value to a project manager. A bigger picture view and understanding of dependencies and why certain activities need to be sequential makes project planning a lot easier and significantly increases the likelihood that a plan is accurate and effective. Some of the best technical and innovative minds, the types of individual that are key to delivering technology, are hopelessly devoid of organization and methodical thinking. The project manager has to bring the logical outlook that pulls it all together, and a strong project manager will have the confidence to challenge the thinking of the most brilliant engineer if he or she is failing to look beyond their own small area of the overall implementation.CommunicationNo surprises here. Most project managers would list communication as one of the most important aspects of project management. Indeed, most project management methodologies dedicate specific coverage to communication and the Comms Plan. How and to whom a project manager communicates is vitally important. All projects should set out at the outset how they will formally report progress, risk ; issues, exceptions and escalations. This is the formal part. In addition to this, a good project manager will make sure that key stake holders always have just enough information but not too much and are never caught in a position where the first they know of an issue or problem is when the customer escalates it to them. Different stakeholders like different approaches and the project manager needs to quickly establish how best to communicate informally with stakeholders, be it email, phone, walking over to their desk, or a chat at the coffee machine. An important point made verbally is always best followed up in writing.RelationshipsGood relationships go a long way when trying to achieve project success. The project manager who invests time into building relationships with key players will find themselves well positioned when the pressure is on and it's necessary to ask more of the project team, or when relationships with clients become strained due to delivery challenges. Ten minutes invested in providing counsel to a frustrated engineer, showing some empathy and letting him get a few gripes off his chest, can pay dividends when you need that same engineer to work late on a Friday night to get an installation finished. It's not just relationships with key contributors in the project team that are important. Forming a strong relationship with a delivery counterpart within the client's organization is also important. When you're both in front of the customer's programme sponsor at the monthly steering board and the meeting isn't going well due to challenges or delays on the project, you'd rather be side by side and aligned with your client counterpart, who reports into that programme sponsor, than be the individual who gets hung out to try and made a scapegoat.Political AwarenessMany a talented project manager has fallen down or been made the scapegoat for project failure because they didn't get to grips with the politics of either their own organization or that of the customer. A good understanding of when to speak, when to just keep your head down and listen, who to trust, who to be wary of, who you must keep on the right side of and where the real power and authority resides will all increase a project manager's chance of success. Let's be completely honest, sometimes a project is just going to fail, regardless of who the project manager is. A project manager who can navigate the political landscape (as well as having a lot of the other traits we list here) will emerge from a challenged project with their reputation intact, possibly even enhanced. A project manager who neglects this area runs the risk of being made the fall-guy and going down with the sinking ship. Some of this only comes with experience, and there are very few project and programme managers who would honestly tell you that they hadn't been burnt by organizational politics at some stage in their career.AuthoritativeAnother area that sometimes only comes with experience, but being authoritative, or at least giving the impression of being calm and in control, even when you haven't got all of the answers, will inspire calm and confidence in stakeholders and project team members. Nothing erodes customer confidence or encourages an angry client to go for the jugular like a project manager who mutters his way through an update or shows uncertainty and hesitation when answering a difficult question.Inclination to question and challengeThe project manager who takes everyone and everything at face value runs the risk of having the wool pulled over their eyes. Of course , delegation is a key aspect of project management and whilst having overall accountability, the project manager cannot take responsibility for everything. But as a project manager, the ability to quickly identify the right questions to ask, who and when to challenge, and who and when you can trust is another key trait. As a Project Manager, you never want to be in a position where your senior stakeholder or customer is asking the questions that you should have asked yourself or is asking you questions that you can't answer because you haven't asked the right questions of your team.Delegate but keep controlThere is a place, on small, simple, projects for the â€Å"player manager† to use sporting parlance, the individual who does some basic project management as well as being responsible for actually carrying out some of the actions. Similarly, its sometimes valuable when a project finds itself in â€Å"all hands-on deck† mode if the project manager can roll up his sleeve and start crawling under desks to trace cables, deploy handsets or drive a piece of kit from one site to another. However, typically a project manager can't afford to be in the detail of configuring equipment, taking part in the physical installations or touching kit. A project manager incapable of staying out of the weeds will eventually fall foul of this because they will neglect the true project management responsibilities and tasks that they should be carrying out. A project manager needs to establish the governance and rules with project team members in terms of what they need to be made aware of and what they are happy to delegate and leave in the hands of the project resource who owns the action.ExperienceUnfortunately for any new project managers on the block, the reality is that the big jobs normally go to project managers who have been around the block a few times. Not what you want to hear when you're trying to break into project management but, arguably more so than in a lot of other disciplines, the best project managers have normally been doing it for a while. An installation technician can leave the training lab knowing all they need to know about how to physically rack and stack kit and connect it to the network. An engineer can attend a training course on how to configure a switch or router. Individuals with the appropriate training can be immediately effective in these types or roles, even if they have little or no real-world experience. Clearly there are enough project managers around to demonstrate that a lack of experience isn't an absolute barrier to entry but if we're talking about the best project managers, those who are entrusted with the complex projects and the high-profile clients, experience plays a major part. With experience, all of the other traits on this list are likely to be developed and enhanced to a higher level. When a challenge arises, the experienced project manager who has seen the same or similar situations before is more likely to have learned the lessons and gained first-hand knowledge of what will work and what won't work. Sadly, for those looking to enter project management and go straight to the top of the pile, you can't teach experience.

The Future of Work Motivation Theory

Introduction to finical Topic Forum The Future of hold out indigence Theory Author(s) Richard M. Steers, Richard T. Mowday, Debra L. Shapiro Source The academy of lie withment followup, Vol. 29, no 3 (Jul. , 2004), pp. 379-387 masterduce by academy of watchfulness shelter URL http//www. jstor. org/stable/20159049 . Accessed 25/04/2011 0909 Your office of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTORs Terms and Conditions of Use, procurable at . http//www. jstor. org/ knave/info/ nigh/policies/terms. jsp.JSTORs Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you get down obtained prior permission, you may non transfer an entire expiration of a ledger or multiple copies of articles, and you may accustom bailiwick in the JSTOR archive al genius for your personal, non-commercial usance. Please seize the publisher regarding round(prenominal) only intake of this naturalize. Publisher amour information may be obtained at . http//www. jstor. o rg/ arrangeion/showPublisher? publisherCode=aom. . Each copy of whatsoever part of a JSTOR transmission mustinessiness contain the same copyright ceremonial occasion that appears on the screen or printed page of oft dates(prenominal) transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit dish out that helps scholars, re hunt clubers, and students discover, use, and systema skeletale upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technical schoolnology and tools to gain productivity and facilitate bleak forms of scholarship. For to a greater end information about JSTOR, please cont act as emailprotected org. Academy of Management is gaplaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and hold up access to The Academy of Management check over. http//www. jstor. org ? Academy o? Management Re insure 2004, Vol. 29, No. 3, 379-387. INTRODUCTIONTO SPECIAL TOPIC FORUMTHEFUTURE WORKindigence OF THEORY RICHARDM. STEERS RICHARD T. MOWDAY University o? Oregon DEBRA L. SHAPIRO University of Maryland want The result of employee plays a cen tral section in the stadium of worldagement? twain prac consider motiva and supposedly. tically Managers tion as an part of the slaying integral equivalence searchers block at all see re trains, while organisational it as a fundamental building been. an overview This innovation re ranges of the country of mesh pauperism from a theoretic and lays the openation for the arti impassepoint cles The that the Latin on this (mover?. Building as the demand Atkinson defines belief, on direc bring (immediate) con temp for sweat follow. 2 term need derives from b ar-asseds show in the expatiatement of utilitarian theories of utile the Indeed, anxiety practice. of the sub galore(postnominal) theme of indigence perforates the study of guidance, field that compose man teams, carrying into action including live onership, decision ethics, making, It is not surprising, change. so much that this t opic has veritable over the prehistorical some(prenominal)(prenominal) in two decenniums diarys and worry periodicals. xam youthful articles give way several imprint far we fill come in searching agement, managerial and organisational on that pointfore, oversight enquiry Whereas of action tion, vigor, and doggedness (1964 2), while it as a branch Vroom defines governing among choice do alternative by persons forms of voluntary (1964 6). Campbell occupation and Pritchard that suggest pauperism dependent the direction, has to do with a go by of independent/ covariant that ex apparent apprisalships amplitude, and persistence of an ined how on where this finicky forum focuses motif, we be going. That the questions is, we ask is the coming(prenominal) tense of take on pauperism What theories? are What the precise be that must questions if progress in the field is to be made? intercommunicate is the duration to come inquiry What How send word schedule? we or stylishify current expressions some(prenominal)er of put to reach so they continue in the motivation to be relevant are entirely recent models future tense? And where to advance our agniseing motivation studyed of employee bearing and personal logical argument of credit performance contemporary compositions? To netherstand where the field first baseborn go truehearted ever, we must is going, where how it has of in ndividuals constant air, holding fects of aptitude, skill, and sagacity lying-in, and the constraints operating in the the ef of the envi ronment (1976 63-130). These and former(a) definitions construct cardinal com mon denominators. con They are all principally or events cerned with elements that energize, over cadence. and hold on forgiving doings channel, In various ways, of lam theories contemporary motivation to evolve derive from lawsuits with increase precision to square off ter assort how these manner troika factors in or ganizations. inEARLYDEVELOPMENTS IN MOTIVATION THEORY The earliest man motivation to dread hu approaches date from the clipping of the Greek and focus on the conceit of hedo We suss out cial are panel forum. indebted(predicate) to the time staff and of AMR thrust and to the editorial of this spe for their on behalf philosophers 2 1 For motivation, recent see inspections Kanfer of the look literature on bend and For a more than tiny examination see oarlockder of the evolution ostiarius, of cogitation and (1990), Mitchell (1997), Ambrose motivation Steers theories, (2003). (1998) and Bigley,Kulik (1999),and Mitchell and Daniels (2002). 379 380 Academy of Management suss out July a principle force in carriage. driving seen as sprocket wheelitate were Individuals their efforts on seeking and avoiding This pleasure disoblige. was after peachy and further devel principle in the agencyplay of philosophers like Locke, oped nism as Bentham, Mill, and eighteenth Toward electric outlet and Helvetius, centuries. in the seventeenth nism of the ancient. outcomes would actions melt to this past would that led to positive tend to be repeated, whereas outcomes that led to negative Past actions Thorndike he end of the nineteenth the century, to migrate of motivation from the began to the freshlyly realm of philosophy sci uphill ence of psychological science. Challenges immediately arose over the use of hedonism as the basis for the study of motivation. donism had no that exculpated were specification pleasurable or (1911) re of effect, while Hull was that effort or motivation (1943) suggested almostly dictated by drive X habit. Skinner by and by built on these (1953) and others con with the display of op? rant principles to by some as reinforcement (referred ditioning ferred to diminish. s the law theories), joust learn contingent and their that, over relationships and consequences future behavior. guide to thrive idiosyncratics time, action s between that these contin As Vroom explains, he of the painful, type or of even events how gencies models vehicles continue these events could be determined for a particular nor did it make give the axe how persons soulfulness of ways of attaining their conceptions acquired pleasure pain might the hedonistic or pain, or how be modified assumption the by or source of pleasure In short, experience. no empirical con has or understanding as advantageously occupancy performance, various counseling performance 2003). (e. g. , Komaki, go psychologists Reinforcement as explanatory instantly create motivation and as in the piece of buy the farm in programs tent and was untestable (1964 10). scientists search As a result, behavioral began to ex for more base models ing empirically plain motivation. were these primal models inherent aptitude the Among as those proposed ories, much(prenominal) by crowd, Freud, and McDougall. In seat these rational, highly much behavior resulted a s McDougall an tion inherited which charge an or innate determined ere on in counsel were on stincts and drives, managers focusing more pragmatic issues. A recognise development here was the dress of Frederick and his spread Taylor move in the scientific management leagues ment. industrial engineering of (1911), along with mevery cathode-ray oscilloscope, Taylor on the in his associates, foc utilise his maintenance in an increas efficiencies of factory production climax ingly posed industrialized a new and progress toers age. These colleagues pro to paternalistic approach that relied on a combination from an that postulated from instinct, defined by f viewing theorists behavior as psychological its possessor of a authoritative excitement predisposi to perceive, of an class, a partic object, manner to or pay experience ular quality and to act to, objects emotional upon in regard such perceiving to it in a particular (1908 4). James cluded jealousy, identified a list of suc h instincts sociability, that in man agedness of under fetching training, inducement pay-for-performance tech selection systems, employee improved and the intro niques, theorize redesign, including duction of ergonomics.Far from being exploit saw ative in intent, Taylor and his associates as an economic to scientific grace management the use both pee-peeers and management through and through with(predicate) in of improved manufacturing techniques, re and creased shared operating efficiency, the later(prenominal) originate of an in hands, creasingly sophisticated coupled to maximize with efforts company productivity re without increasing simultaneously employee wards. However, to discredit served this sys wards, eventually to the far-flung rise of unioniza tem, atomic number 82 in the 1930s. ion efforts neighborly scientists and managers Meanwhile, to consider the role of favorable ferments began on behavior in the 1930s. The role of congregation dy as com to view emplo yees namics and the need plex beings ences were with multiple as acceptd motivational reasonful influ influences locomotion, curiosity, and sympathy. fear, as in or so the 1920s, however, Beginning to creased of the opening limitations began to be re noted instinct theories emerge, began on drive or reinforcement.Led base by models as Thorndike, Wood by such psychologists worth, the theorists introduced and Hull, drive in actuate of learning and behavior or fu that decisions concerning bounty posited are ture behaviors influenced largely by the concept with past of rewards associated consequences to this as hedo behavior. (1954) referred Allport 2004 Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro 381 re these trounce noted among performance. are Mayos and Roeth search endeavors (1933) Bendix and Dicksons (1939) elaborates. is iceberg lettuceer of this persona summarized the principle movement that human relations by observing as human to treat leaders the failure beings on came low in and, thus, has found considerable popularity on separate to go away factors relating research motivation. and their col While Maslow and McClelland on the role of individual differ focused leagues in motivation, (1966 Herzberg, Herzberg to under & Snyderman, Mausner, 1959) sought activities how work of and the nature stand and performance. nes seam influence motivation ar In his motivation- hygiene scheme, Herzberg is largely influenced that work motivation gued a job is intrinsically to which the extent chal by for recogni and provides opportunities lenging saw the con tion and reinforcement. Herzberg a job (which he referred text skirt to as as being in far more factors) temporal hygiene terms of leading to delight and future moti vation. Herzberg deserves credit for introducing the field to the role of job design? specifically, a key factor in work motiva job enrichment? s tion and Hackman ext cease work job attitudes. and onetime(a)ham this line of In sub resultant work, liv e (1976) and others as it relates to research ences to be regarded craftsmanship, as the intellect of low morale, and con unresponsiveness, fusion (1956294). McGregor (1960) later built on this in his guileless early work, The gentleman Side mo been prin with of Enterprise. new models of work By the 1950s, several tivation emerged, apply which collectively to as conten? since their referred theories, to recognise aim was factors associated cipal is Maslows here motivation.Included need (1954) that, as suggests hierarchy surmisal, which their way individuals up a develop, they work on the fulfillment of a series of based hierarchy necessarily, including physiological, and esteem, security, belongingness, that the first Maslow self-actualization. argued on the list represent three need deficiency before needs that people must master they gage into a healthy while the personality, develop to two represent needs that relate growth of and the development achievement individual human Alderfer (1972) later adapted potential. o encompass exis this model just three needs last tence, cerebrateness, A encourage need introduced growth. possibility of the same (1938) only more by Murray and era, first prioritized condom and and motivation, design, job performance, Deci while others, (1975 Ryan & Deci, including theories 2000), fork out render focusing specif versus on task-based intrinsic inessential ically in motivation factors (e. g. , self-determination guess). richly de veloped by McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the THE GOLDENAGE OF WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES n the mid to 1960s, a new approach Beginning the study of work motivation which emerged, on delineating focused the influencees underly blood line influence theories ing work motivation. content with the foregoing theories, which sharply on keying focused factors associated with in a relatively motivation stable environment. view work motivation Process theorists from a dynamic tionships to human and olfactory modality for causal rela perspective crosswise as they relate time and events in the employment. ehavior to the process is a series Central surmise genre of cognitive motivation theories of that collec to understand the thought pro tively attempt cesses in find that people go through to be absorb theories on and focused sort of of a hierarchy concept of an start of distinct the motivational potency achieve defined and clearly needs, including and autonomy. McClel ment, affiliation, power, at any given individuals land argued time, that, that often needs several possess competing serve to go when activated.This behavior contrasts notion of a steady pro with Maslows over time up a hypothetical gression hierarchy as individuals grow and mature. By far, most of on in McClellands model focused the attention (defined as behavior of with a standard directed toward competition as a need to and power excellence) (defined over ones environment). have control McCle l the needs for achievement a lands abstractization offered researchers as they connect to set of clearly needs defined to Maslows in contrast behavior, study more annul for abstractizations (e. g. , need versus achievement need for self-actualization) n the workplace. In our view, the the late 1960s and generated during mid-seventies make this period of a early something theories. Never golden age of work motivation never since has before and, some would argue, how 382 Academy of Management Review July in explicating been made the progress of work motivation. etiology best known of the cognitive theories peradventure is forecast (or expectancy-valence) speculation. from the early work forethought conjecture derives saw be of Lewin (1938) and Tolman (1959), who havior based as purposeful, on conscious and largely determination directed, intentions. Vroom (1964) pre formulation of ex systematic o much several models acclivitous ences on work motivation of cross-cultural influ and job performance & of 1982 Earley, 1997 Steers (Bhagat & McQuaid, 2001 Triandis, Sanchez-Runde, 1995). to expectancy In addition theory, a itemize other theories of work moti important cognitive vation have been since the 1960s, developed its own focus. Adams each with (1963), for exam ple, how em lawfulness theory to explain both cognitively and behavior ployees respond to perceived in the workplace un candor ally & Colwell, 2003, and Weick, (see overly Mowday introduced sented the first to the workplace. ectancy theory as it related He argued that employees tend to rationally various treasure work behaviors on-the-job those be harder) and then choose (e. g. , working haviors suppose will lead to their most val they ued work-related rewards and outcomes the attractiveness Thus, promotion). ular task and the energy invested a great appoint on the extent pend employee to valued ostiarius believes outcomes. and its accomplishment (e. g. , a of a partic in it will de t o which the will lead & Maruyama, that 1976). Adams Bougon, argued both conditions of underpayment and overpay can ment influence behavior.Re subsequent cent work on adjectival and distri furtherive justice further develops this scene of action using the fundamen tal concept of fairness and its consequences (Cro & Rupp, 2003 Folger, 1986 Greenberg, panzano & McFarlin, 1993 Sweeney 1993). in the late Goal-setting theory also emerged as researchers to discover that the 1960s, began simple hanced Steers showed prognosticate act of specifying en for behavior targets task performance 1968, 1996 (Locke, in this arena & Porter, 1974). Research and specificity, intention difficulty, to enhance each served task on numerous Based empiricalLawler Vrooms (1968) expanded to recognize the role of individual initial work differences abilities and skills) (e. g. , employee in linking and role clarity job job effort to actual Porter and performance. the relationship between Lawler also elegan t and sub performance that this relation satisfaction, sequent arguing of the ship is mediated by the extent and quality in replacement receive rewards for employees job performance. a Finally, feedback that remainder commitment Porter and to recog in mergedd curl up nize learning about past relation by employees in the That is, if superior ships. erformance to lead to superior failed future rewards, past effort may suffer as incentives and the employee in the employees reward system lose credibility best Lawler eyes. performance. Locke and Latham studies, (1990) subsequently a noble theory of close setting. proposed Earley a time dimension to and Erez (1991) later added this Rosse topic by on examining motivation, the role of cognitive and treat while Crown a summate its initial of Since publication, or further brush up to extend have worked scholars to re the basal framework expectancy cognitive research and new theo flect emerging findings retical developments 1990 Mit ch (e. . , Kanfer, For example, ell, 1997). expectancy theory has to study forms of work behavior been used other than job performance, ab including employee citizen and organizational overthrow, senteeism, Porter, & 1977 Mowday, (Mobley, ship behavior 1973 Steers, 1982 Organ, 1988 Porter & Steers, have also Steers & Rhodes, 1978). Researchers and tender influences linked chemical multitude expectations to individual decisions work motivation (Porter, Lawler, ancy & Hackman, principles have basic expect 1975). Finally, into been incorporated the role of group goals, in (1995) tryd on performance. o individual addition goals, of goal-setting Applications theory in the form of individual and team management-by-objectives are now used widely in programs throughout (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). dustry saw significant this period Finally, develop on the role of fond ments focusing cognition on behavior and self-efficacy and performance as Bandura such researchers by leading a social B andura (1977a,b, 1997). cog proposed nitive that self-confidence suggesting theory, to lies at the heart of an individuals incentive a major act or to be proactive. fter Indeed, on social review of the research literature cog nition and self-efficacy, and Luthans Stajkovic for the (1998, 2003) found considerable support in determining role of self-efficacy work as moder related particularly performance, ated by task knottyity and locus of control. 2004 Sfeers, Mowday, and Shapiro 383 Based posed place izational research, this extending a model through behavior. on this Luthans concept labeled (2001) has pro into the work positive organ An outside this placement in the subject cause it is no izations) observer that either rom solve might we have lost engagement be of work motivation (perhaps in organ issue longer a pressing or that we solved the work motivation the con con its upstart DEVELOPMENTS IN WORK MOTIVATION numerous and 1970s and pool cated nessed of the have ideas em erging from the 1960s been subsequently to reflect an further developed and more of research findings research a series methods. extended thereby eliminating problem long ago, for additional work. neither of these need searchs the clusions On very plausible. economy, trary, and e-commerce, dot. oms, as the more ization (as well facturing is force and service in the new replete change magnitude traditional a instigated a with global manu work Indeed, of refinements and extensions For expanded sophisti the eighties wit of researchers animated example, in conceptual made great strides developments on social and empirical work learning focusing on in new work focusing theory, as they did systems, innovation and justice, punishment, procedural on work influences and cross-cultural creativity, behavior. sideline However, by the 1990s, gifted in work motivation least as mea theory? t goal-setting theory, job design, sured cline sider by journal precipitously. the number articles pub lications? seemed As evidence of theoretical of to de this, con to be reward theories. stylemark of frequently MIT econo Indeed, competitive advantage. over a de mist Lester Thurow (1992) observed cade that successful (and ago companies countries) principally nology vated will on make out the quality their human in the future their based tech of both resources. firms), as cited A moti and a critical work force becomes strategic in such plus then, has Why, competition. so little intellectual there been focus activity we have ing on this important topic? Perhaps the find ideas that can yet to develop level of understanding. push us to the next on work mo While theoretical developments tivation in recent have declined may years, the world ? f work has changed dramatically. one can argue that the past cristal Indeed, has witnessed other than any are both Companies and expanding (often at downsizing or levels in different the same divisions time, is character of the hierarchy). The workforce ized by increased with diver miscellany highly and demands.Information technol gent needs both the manner ogy has changed frequently and location tional forms of work (such now published over the past decade journals & Kulik, & 1999, or Mitchell find some articles that You will Daniels, 2002). in focus on genuine theoretical developments see electric razor area. exten will this Instead, you empirical) science havioral see Ambrose (e. g. , sions, tests, or applications empirical ing theories. While clearly helpful, to breakthrough leads developments of exist this hardly in our (as oppose in leading greater decade workplace in memory. changes of the principles understanding central work motivation.At the same of time, a review recent in the the most editions of textbooks field of management and organizational be havior that most of the theories dis reveals cussed date from the 1960s and 1970s, with to more recent work. references only fleeting searching that some earl y motivation (It is also theories been widely that have subsequently to permeate continue discredited such texts. ) In short, while of management other fields negotiations, tion design) decision (e. g. , leadership, making, and teams, and organiza groups to develop continue conceptually, all important(p) theoretical focus developments on work motivation have not unbroken pace. ng research activities. as those untested found Teams organiza in e-com are re merce) are commonplace. as of hierarchy, distributions. of power is on the rise. Man age workers contingent to perplex continues workers expe knowledge across rienced managers industries. divergent And globalization of man and the challenges specify traditional the notion aging stead across borders are now the norm in of the exception. as well The use 3 See 2003) focusing a key strategic mance. a finical on issue the asset o? Harvard Business Review (January as of employee motivation importance in competition and corporate per for 84 Academy of Management Review July can have a intense These changes influence on how companies to attract, retain, and attempt motivate their employees. Yet we lack new mod in of guiding behavior sure-footed managerial this new era of work. As Cappelli Most notes, observers of the corporate world believe that the traditional between and relationship employer is gone, but there is little understand employee it ended and even is less about what ing of why els that relationship We believe (1999 1). our intellec to redirect time has come new models? and into discovering tual energies new models? f work motiva research toward commensurate tion and with job performance replacing that the this new era. tions work plete, more theories. more for developing thickening motivation that are more valid, broader useful in scope, and, to practitioners theories of more com by implication, than existing In the second, Yitzhak Fried and Linda Haynes examine in which time factors can Slowik wa ys influence and job perfor processes goal-setting mance in work that organizations. They argue the addition of time as a key variable in goal and validity setting theory adds to its heartiness in helping in in behavior explain employee creasingly environments. omplex, continually evolving work THE ROAD AHEAD With this for document motivation. in mind, in 2001 AMR issued a call on the topic of the future of work was A special seminar held at the Next, Myeong-Gu Seo, Lisa Feldman Barrett, and Jean M. Bartunek blow on both psychologi cal and neurobiological of essence affec theories a set of direct and tive experiences to identify indirect paths affec through which work-related can influence tive feelings three dimensions of behavioral and direction, intensity, to direct In addition af influence, persistence. an also influence behavior fective experiences on goal level their make indirectly, through and goal commitment, as well of motivation as on components apprehension expecta ncy, utility, and progress. L. Ackerman Ruth Kanfer and Phillip then use to fa and great(p) development theories life-span an understanding cilitate of the implications of on workplace motivation. aging aging Although as leading to declining is generally viewed cog nitive these au and intellectual capabilities, thors argue that this view may be overly sim is a more that aging Instead, plistic. hey argue in which process, cognitive complex declining are accompanied in other abilities by growth intellectual of motives abilities, shakeup traits. and goals, and changing personality mo how aging influences Fully understanding a large tivation, therefore, requires com of the different and often understanding taking changes this, Naomi Following and S. Alexander Gilder, pensatory place. Ellemers, Haslam Dick de use self the key to relating outcomes of the Academy of Manage 2001 annual meeting ment to stimulate in the interest and discussion to the call, researchers In retort sub topic. ere mitted subse which papers, fifty- vi of space reviewed. quently the journal, some(prenominal) papers worthy accommodated. However, following view six papers emerged cycles, offer new and useful ideas and future directions of the topic. What these for the theoretical In view could limitations not multiple that seem insights development of be re to into in common is a have papers on existing to build of effort theories genuine work motivation and extending by adapting con of the changing them to fit the realities is temporary Todays workplace workplace. hort-term characterized by an increasingly variable, performance among increasing employ interdependence ees in some form of team (often manifested to emotive responses evolving organization), the workplace value increasing experience, on the part of employees, actions and motive nature of the pass(a) and a clear recognition focus, of careers. time as a critical six papers a variety address our understanding The tivation Edwin A . Locke in this special issue appearing to advancing of issues critical of motivation theory and mo social pro categorization theory and identity cesses to examine in which ndividual the ways to determine interact work and group processes in organizations motivation. The fact that work around increasingly organized to understand it is important gests influence how work is teams how sug groups The first paper, by on focuses P. Latham, on work moti of metatheories the development six recommenda vation. These authors present in the workplace. and Gary motivation. Their paper can have in groups participation explores a power 2004 Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro 385 on motivation ful influence can be understood what by on individual-level effects. Finally, Hugo lines of research the influences and bove focusing and beyond Crown, D. F. , & Rosse, J. G. 1995. Yours, through mine the and ours exclusively several Deci, Facilitating of individual and charitable group productivity and group goal s. Decision Processes, motivation. Organizational 64 138-150. refreshing York social across integration demeanor M. Kehr synthesizes on motivation by E. L. 1975. inalienable P. C. 1997. Face, Plenum. structure cultures. An saucily of explicit and on motivation abilities perceived model. using a compensatory workplace answer some model intriguing, helps solved examining implicit motives in the Kehrs unreEarley, of organizational analysis York Oxford University Earley, P. C, and & Erez, norms models. M. and harmony, behavior Press. 1991. Time role Journal of dependency effects treat of on 76 individual questions concerning goal at tainment and why self-set goals may sometimes be nonmotivating. to the these papers contribute Throughout, research and theo long tradition of substantive in the field of work motiva retical development tion that expediency both organizational researchers and practicing alike. managers goals motivational 717-727. The cognitive of Applied Psychology, R. 1986.Rethinking Folger, tions model. In H. W. (Eds. ), Justice berg Plenum. Greenberg, and J. 1993. The informational equity Beirhoff, cogni theory A denotive R. L. Cohen, & J. Green 145-162. upstart York in social relations social classes side of lividity Interpersonal justice. Approach 79-103. In R. Cropanzano ing fairness (Ed. ), Justice in human or organizational in the workplace management Associates. resources Erlbaum G. R. of a REFERENCES Adams, S. J. 1963. Towards of Abnormal and an Journal Alderfer, York Allport, understanding affectionate Psychology, relatedness, and of inequity. 67 422-436. impertinentlyHillsdale, Hackman, design ior and Herzberg, cosmea Herzberg, tion Hull, faces Kanfer, F. NJ Lawrence J. R. f & Oldham, of work Human Test 1976. indigence theory. Organizational 16 250-279. Performance, and the nature of man. the through Behav C. P. Free G. W. 1972. Existence, Press. 1954. In G. The growth. 1966. Work Cleveland Publishing. F. , Mausner, to work. cu tting B. & Snyderman, York Wiley. of behavior. B. 1959. The motiva historical psychology. chology. Ambrose, ment Atkinson, wagon train Bandura, M. Lindzey MA Cambridge, L. , & Kulik, research C. in T. background (Ed. ), Handbook of modern of social psyAddison-Wesley. 1999. Old 1990s. friends, Journal new C. L. 1943. Principles Century-Crofts. R. 1990. Motivation New York Appleton Motivation the of Manage 25 231-292. W. J. Nostrand. A. 1977a. Self-efficacy change. 1977b. Social Toward a unifying 84 Review, Englewood theory of 191-215. Cliffs, 1964. Introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ izational psychology. of (Eds. ), Handbook chology Press. Komaki, 75-170. Palo industrial and organ theory and In M. D. scoldnette & L. D. Hough and organizational industrial psy Alto, CA Consulting Psychologists behavioral Bandura, A. psychological learning J. 2003.Reinforcement theory at work In L. W. theory. and NJ Prentice-Hall. Bandura, York Bendix, Wiley. R. S. , & McQuaid, S. J. 1982. Rol e of internal culture Bhagat, re in organizations A review and directions for future search. of Applied 67 653-685. Journal Psychology, R. D. 1976. Motivation in J. P. , & Pritchard, Campbell, theory industrial and organizational In M. D. Dun psychology. nette of industrial and (Ed. ), Handbook organizational psychology P. Cappelli, Business Cropanzano, zational 63-130. 1999. The shallow Chicago new deal Rand McNally. Boston Harvard R. A. 1997. Self-efficacy Freeman. 956. Worlr and The exercise of control. New what explaining & R. M. Steers Bigley, ior (7th ed. ) 95-113. do. employees (Eds. ), Motivation Burr Ridge, Porter, Enhancing G. A. behav and work IL Irwin/McGraw-Hill. authority in industry. New York K. 1938. The conceptual Lewin, surement of psychological Press. University Locke, E. A. incentives. mance, Locke, E. A. 1968. Towards Organizational 3 157-189. 1996. Motivation and Preventive a and the mea representation forces. NC Duke Durham, of theory air task motivation an d Human and Perfor through Psychology, conscious Applied Locke, goal 5 117-124. etting. E. A. , & Latham, task performance. G. P. 1990. A Englewood case theory Cliffs, of goal setting NJ Prentice-Hall. and at work. Press. Luthans, F. 2001. The Issues ior. Current Maslow, A. H. for positive in Management and organizational 1(1) 10-21. personality. New behav D. E. 2003. An overview of organi for work In motivation. justice Implications L. W. Porter, G. A. Bigley, & R. M. Steers (Eds. ), Motivation and work behavior IL Irwin/ (7th ed. ) 82-95. Burr Ridge, McGraw-Hill. R. , & Rupp, 1954. Motivation York Harper Mayo, E. & Row. 1933. The human problems York macmillan. f an industrial civiliza tion. New 386 Academy of Management Review July E. L. 2000. of intrinsic Self-determination motivation, social and McClelland, cutting edge McClelland, York D. C. Nostrand. D. C. General W. 1961. The achieving society. Princeton, NJ Ryan, R. M. , & Deci, the facilitation and B. F. theory 1971. Asse ssing Press. study introduction human motivation. New ment, Skinner, well-being. 1953. lore American and human Psychologist behavior. develop 55 68-78. New York McDougall, London 1908. An to social psychology. Macmillan. A. D. , & Luthans, Stajkovic, related performance 124 240-261.Bulletin, Stajkovic, and A. D. , & Luthans, F. 1998. Self-efficacy and work A meta-analysis. mental Methuen. D. 1960. The human side of enterprise. New York McGregor, McGraw-Hill. Mitchell, T. R. 1997. duplicate motivational Research contexts. organizational 19 57-94. havior, Mitchell, D. T. R. , & Daniels, & R. Klimoski Volume 225-254. strategies in Organizational with Be F. 2003. self-efficacy Implications In L. W. G. Porter, practice. (Eds. ), Motivation Burr Ridge, and work IL Irwin/McGraw-Hill. & Porter, L. W. Social cognitive theory for motivation theory and A. Bigley, & R. M.Steers (7th ed. ) 126-140. D. 2002. Motivation. InW. Borman, handbook behavior Ilgen, of psychology. psychology W. Mobley , between nal H. (Eds. ), Comprehensive 12 Industrial and organizational New York Wiley. linkages and employee 62 237-240. Steers, R. M. , 1974. The role of attributes letin, Steers, 1977. Intermediate job satisfaction Psychology, in the relationship turnover. Jour in employee 81 434-452. & Rhodes, performance. Psychological task-goal Bul R. M. , S. R. of Applied ployee to of attendance A process 1978. Major model. influences Journal on em of Applied reactions K. A. 2003.Employee R. T. , & Colwell, Mowday, in the workplace outcomes The contributions unfair to understanding Adams work motivation. equity theory In L. W. vation Porter, and Psychology, Steers, and 63 391-407. C. 2001. Culture, motivation, (Eds. ), Lon R. M. , & Sanchez-Runde, work behavior. In M. Gannon & K. Newman 190-215. & R. M. Steers G. A. Bigley, (Eds. ), Moti IL work behavior (7th ed. ) 65-82. Burr Ridge, Handbook don of cross-cultural management Blackwell. evaluations of four mod Irwin/McGraw-Hill. Mowday, R. T. , Porter, L. W. , & Steers, R. M. 1982. Employee of commitment, York donnish P.D. , & McFarlin, D. B. 1993. Workers Sweeney, An examination of the ends and means els of distributive air and and procedural Human Decision organization absenteeism, Press. The psychology linkages turnover. New and tional 40. in personality. New York Taylor, Thorndike, millan. Thurow, F. justice. Organiza 53 23 Processes, H. A. 1938. Exploration Murray, Press. Oxford University Organ, good Pinder, C. D. W. 1911. Scientific E. L. management. intelligence. New York New Harper. Mac The behavior 1988. Organizational citizenship MA Lexington pass Books. Lexington, syndrome. 1998.Work Saddle motivation in organizational NJ Prentice-Hall. R. M. Burr behavior. 1911. Animal York L. 1992. inquiry Japan, to head Europe, The and Upper Porter, and River, L. W. , work G. A. , & Steers, Bigley, behavior (7th ed. ) 2003. Motivation Ridge, IL Irwin/ among Morrow. Tolman, economic coming America. New battle York McGr aw-Hill. Porter, L. W. , & Lawler, E. E. 1968. Managerial IL Irwin. J. R. attitudes and S. Koch behavior. In 1959. Principle of purposive A study of science, vol. 2 239 (Ed. ), Psychology 261. New York McGraw-Hill. H. C. and 1995. Motivation individualistic and cultures. n motivation CT and JAI Press. New G. and York Wiley. 1976. The Human equity Perfor achievement In M. Maehr and in collec & P. Pin E. C. performance. Porter, L. W. , Homewood, Lawler, Triandis, 1975. Behavior in tivist trich vol. work, absenteeism. and Vroom, Weick, and Press. E. E. , & Hackman, New York McGraw-Hill. R. M. organizations. Porter, L. W. , (Eds. ), Advances 9 1-30. Greenwich, achievement, & Steers, factors personal Psychological Roethlisberger, the worker. 1973. Organizational, in employee turnover and 80 151-176. W. MA V. H. 1964. Work motivation. Bulletin, F. , & Dickson, Cambridge, K. E. Bougon, context. M. G. , & Maruyama, Behavior J. 1939. Management Harvard University mance, Organizational 15 32- 65. Richard College atomic number 20 cultural Richard quist M. Steers is the Kazumitsu University His current Shiomi of Oregon. research professor He received of Business, at Irvine. of Management his Ph. D. from in the Lundquist the University of and cross focuses on employee motivation management. T. Mowday is the Gerald B. Bashaw Professor of Management received his and research in the Lund Ph. D. on from leadership the of Business, College at of California University in organizations. University Irvine andHe of Oregon. focuses his teaching Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro Debra ment L. Shapiro, the Willard whole meal flour of Manage Professor formerly bossy at UNC-Chapel is now professor of management in the and organization Hill, R. H. Smith School at College of Business, of Maryland Park, and a particle University of the Academy of Managements Board of Governors. She her Ph. D. received from conflict Her University. in organizations that the cross-cultural challenges research tend of managing focuses on issues regarding employee how to motivate to manage behaviors and northwestern unproductive conflict effectively.